Acronyms
AIAI Al Itihad Al Islamiyya
AMISOM African Union Mission in Somalia
APD Academy for Peace and Development
ARPCT Alliance for the Restoration of Peace and Counter Terrorism
ARS Alliance for the Re-Liberation of Somalia
AU African Union
COGWO Coalition for Grassroots Women Organizations
CRD Center for Research and Development
CRC Constitutional Review Committee
CSO Civil Society Organization
EC European Commission
EU European Union
FCC Federal Constitutional Committee
FPENS Formal Private Education Centre
GOS Somali Olympic Committee
HINNA Haweenka Horseedka Nabadda (Women Pioneers for Peace and Life)
ICU Islamic Courts Union
IFCC Independent Federal Constitutional Commission
IGAD Inter-Governmental Authority on Development
INXA Iskuxirka Nabada iyo Xuquuqal Adamiga
JSC Joint Security Committee
MSSP Mogadishu Security and Stabilization Plan
NEC National Electoral Commission
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
NSSP National Security and Stabilization Plan
PDRC Puntland Development and Research Center
PHRN Peace and Human Rights Network
PSC Peace and Security Council (AU)
RRA Rahanweyn Resistance Army
R2P Responsibility to Protect
SNA Somali National Alliance
SNF Somali National Front
SNM Somali National Movement
SNRC Somalia National Reconciliation Conference
SPM Somali Patriotic Movement
SRRC Somali Reconciliation and Restoration Council
SRSG Special Representative of the Secretary- General (UN)
SSA Somali Salvation Alliance
SSC Somali Salvation Council
SSDF Somali Salvation Democratic Front
SWA Somali Women’s Agenda
TFG Transitional Federal Government
TNC Transitional National Charter
TNG Transitional National Government
UAE United Arab Emirates
UCID Justice and Welfare Party
UDUB United Democratic People’s Party
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNHCR United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees
UNITAF Unified Task Force
UNOCHA United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
UNOSOM United Nations Operation in Somalia
UNPOS United Nations Political Office for Somalia
UNSCR United Nations Security Council Resolution
US United States
USC United Somali Congress
USF United Somali Front
USP United Somali Party
USR United Somali Roots
Glossary
Somali words
A standardized Somali orthography based on the Latin script was introduced in Somalia as recently as 1972. With only 19 years of formal education before the state collapsed in 1991, it is still common to see mixture of Somali and anglicized spellings, particularly for names and places. In this publication ‘c’ is pronounced like the Arabic ‘ayn’ and ‘x’ is pronounced as ‘h’.
| Aqal | elder of a diya-paying group |
| Baadisooc | buffer zones between warring parties |
| Beelaha | clans |
| biri-ma-geydo | people who are ‘spared from the spear’ by Somali custom and so are protected in war |
| colaad joojin | cessation of hostilities |
| Ciidamada madaniga | neighbourhood watches or community security systems |
| Diya | blood compensation (Arabic) paid for homicide and injury calculated in camels, but paid in equivalent money |
| Garaad | titled elder among Darood |
| Guurti | committee of elders and in the Somaliland Upper House of Parliament |
| hawaala | informal money transfer system |
| Hees | work songs |
| kala rarid/kala fogeyn | disengagement of forces |
| ku dhashay | the rights of a person born in a place |
| ku dhaqmay | the rights of a person who is naturalized, regardless of where they were born or who they are descended from |
| Isim | senior titled elder among Majeerteen |
| maanso | classical form of poetry |
| Malaq | titled elder among Rahanweyn |
| Maraado-Ta’siir | sanctions for those who violate peace accords |
| Shari’a | Islamic law (Arabic) |
| Shir | ad hoc council or assembly of elders |
| shir beeleed | clan conference |
| shir qarameed | national conference |
| shirguudon | chairing committee of a peace conference composed of elders and/or respected individuals |
| Suldaan | titled elder among Isaaq |
| Suluh | Pacification (Arabic) |
| u dhashay | the rights of a person born to a family/clan/nation |
| Ugaas | titled elder among Hawiye |
| Ulema | council of Islamic scholars (Arabic) |
| ummah | community of Muslims (Arabic) |
| xabbad joojin | ceasefire |
| Xanfaley | a curse in the form of a magic wind associated with Yebro ‘outcaste’ clan |
| xeer | social contract and customary between clans |
| xeer Soomaali | Somali customary law |
| xeer-beegti | elders who specialize in customary law |
Somali social organization
Historically Somali pastoralist society was stateless, without hierarchical offices or administrative units. Hierarchical offices were more common among southern agro-pastoral clans. Order was, and is today in the absence of government, maintained through a combination of the kinship system, collective social institutions and customary laws. A basic comprehension of this is important for understanding Somali peacemaking and peace processes.
Clan The Somali ‘nation’ is structured on a kinship system of patrilineal lineages, which divide along the male line into subsidiary clans to the level of the nuclear family – a ‘segmentary’ lineage system.
Somalis are commonly described as belonging to one of six ‘clan families’, or confederations of clans, that are genealogically related and who trace descent from a common ancestor: Dir, Isaaq, Darood, Hawiye, Digil and Rahanweyn.
These are commonly categorized into two groups reflecting different economic vocations: 1) pastoralists – the Dir, Isaaq, Darood, Hawiye; and 2) agro-pastoralists – Rahanweyn (also known as Digil-Mirifle) and Digil, which inhabit the regions between the Shabelle and Jubba rivers. The social organization of the settled agro-pastoralist communities differ from nomadic pastoralists and they speak a dialect of Somali (af maymay) that is distinct from af-maxaa Somali spoken by the nomadic clans.
Several other smaller ethnic communities live within the borders of Somalia including: the Benadiri and Barawani people of Arab, Persian, Pakistani and Portuguese descent living in coastal urban settlements like Mogadishu; Banjuni fishing communities in southern Somalia; and distinct groups of farming communities along the southern rivers who are of mixed descent, but who have become commonly referred to as ‘Somali-Bantu’.
The weight given to kinship in contemporary Somali society is contested among both Somalis and non-Somalis. There are other sources of identity and of organization such as class and religion. But in the context of state collapse and in the absence of state institutions and other forms of political organization, the kinship system provides a structure for inter-group relations, governance, organizing and managing violence and organizing commerce.
Elders (oday – sing. odayal – pl.) Traditionally, governance is exercised by lineage elders. Any adult male can be considered an elder with an equal right to speak in a council. Elders have authority because they are delegates and representatives of their clans and are accountable to them. They are selected for attributes such as age, wisdom, knowledge of customary law, powers of oratory and wealth.
Colonial governments co-opted elders of ‘diya-paying’ groups by paying them a stipend and calling them ‘chief’ (aqal or aaqil – sing. aaqilo – pl.). Somali governments continued this practice leading to a proliferation of elders. A ‘diya-paying’ group is united by genealogy and marriage ties. Its members are obliged to protect one another and to pay and receive blood compensation or restitution (diya in Arabic, mag in Somali) for homicide and injuries.
Titled leaders Some lineages have more senior titled heads, known variously as a Suldaan (among the Isaaq), Garaad, Islaan or Boqor (‘king’ among the Darood), Ugaas (among the Hawiye), and Malaq (among the Rahanweyn). Some titles are inherited. Their authority is traditionally based on respect, rather than executive power, and they act as arbiters and peacemakers within their own clan and for others. As clans vie for power and influence titled elders have proliferated during the war.
Religious leaders (Waddad or Sheikh) Traditionally the role of religious leaders was one of pastoral care rather than political leadership. But there have been exceptions, such as the proto-nationalist leader Sayyid Mohammed Abdalla Hassan who fought the colonialists in the early 20th century. Today some religious leaders play a more political role.
Assemblies of elders (shir) Elders assemble in councils to deliberate on matters of the clan. Traditionally these are ad hoc gatherings formed in response to particular needs, such as deciding on the movement of livestock, arranging payment of diya, or organizing for war or for peace.
In pre-colonial times these inter-clan meetings would have been small, but would grow with the coming of states and governments. In the absence of government the shir, which emphasize consensus decision-making, have become important instruments of governance and form the basis of Somali-led peace conferences. Their composition can vary depending on the type of problem being addressed, and meetings may last hours or months, reaching a regional and national level in the Somaliland and Puntland.
Guurti/Isim This is the highest form of clan council comprising titled and non-titled clan leaders selected for their knowledge and wisdom. During their insurgency the Somali National Movement (SNM) organized a guurti to mobilize support for the war. After the war the guurti played an important role in peace conferences and in 1993 was formally incorporated into government and the Upper House of Parliament. Among the Majeerteen a similar committee is known as the Isim. This has not been incorporated into Puntland’s parliament in order to safeguard its independence.
Customary law (Xeer Soomaali) Somali society is a rule-based society. In the absence of the state and formal judicial systems, law and order is maintained through a mixture of customary law (xeer), Islamic Shari’a, traditional values (caado), and a code of social conduct (dhagan). The xeer are an unwritten set of conventions and procedures based on precedent, passed down orally through generations.
Xeer are defined and negotiated by councils of elders (xeer-beegti) meeting in assemblies (shir). Their enforcement relies on the moral weight of elders and social pressure. They establish reciprocal rights and obligations between kin and clans, covering domestic matters, social welfare, political relations between clans, property rights and the management of environmental resources. They enshrine the norms and values of Somali society.
Xeer has been strongly influenced by Shari’a, and has in turn influenced the application of Shari’a in Somalia. But in contrast to secular law and Shari’a, there is no universal customary law. Xeer is specific and localized to relations between neighbouring clans, although it includes common practices such as payment of diya. Some of these norms contradict internationally-accepted human rights norms, such as those relating to women’s rights. Others are similar to international codes, such as those relating to the conduct of war (biri-ma-geydo).
